Lockheed Martin F Lightning II
The Lockheed Martin F Lightning II is an American family of single-seat, single-engine, all-weather stealthmultirole combat aircraft that is intended to perform both air superiority and strike missions. It is also able to provide electronic warfare and intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities. Lockheed Martin is the prime F contractor, with principal partners Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems. The aircraft has three main variants: the conventional takeoff and landing FA (CTOL), the short take-off and vertical-landing FB (STOVL), and the carrier-based FC (CV/CATOBAR).
The aircraft descends from the Lockheed Martin X, which in beat the Boeing X to win the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program. Its development is principally funded by the United States, with additional funding from program partner countries from NATO and close U.S. allies, including the United Kingdom, Italy, Australia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and formerly Turkey.[9][10] Several other countries have ordered, or are considering ordering, the aircraft. The program has drawn much scrutiny and criticism for its unprecedented size, complexity, ballooning costs, and much-delayed deliveries.[N 1] The acquisition strategy of concurrent production of the aircraft while it was still in development and testing led to expensive design changes and retrofits.[12][13]
The FB entered service with the U.S. Marine Corps in July , followed by the U.S. Air Force FA in August and the U.S. Navy FC in February [1][2][3] The F was first used in combat in by the Israeli Air Force.[14] The U.S. plans to buy 2, Fs through , which will represent the bulk of the crewed tactical airpower of the U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps for several decades.[5] The aircraft is projected to operate until [15]
Development[edit]
Program origins[edit]
The F was the product of the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program, which was the merger of various combat aircraft programs from the s and s. One progenitor program was the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Advanced Short Take-Off/Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) which ran from to ; ASTOVL aimed to develop a Harrier Jump Jet replacement for the U.K. Royal Navy and the U.S. Marine Corps (USMC). Under one of ASTOVL's classified programs, the Supersonic STOVL Fighter (SSF), LockheedSkunk Works conducted research for a stealthy supersonic STOVL fighter intended for both U.S. Air Force (USAF) and USMC; a key technology explored was the shaft-driven lift fan (SDLF) system. Lockheed's concept was a single-engine canard delta aircraft weighing about 24,&#;lb (11,&#;kg) empty. ASTOVL was rechristened as the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter (CALF) in and involved Lockheed, McDonnell Douglas, and Boeing.[16][17]
In , the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program emerged following the USAF's Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and U.S. Navy's (USN) Advanced Fighter-Attack (A/F-X) programs cancellations. MRF, a program for a relatively affordable F replacement, was scaled back and delayed due to post-Cold War defense cuts easing F fleet usage and thus extending its service life as well as increasing budget pressure from the F program. The A/F-X, initially known as the Advanced-Attack (A-X), began in as the USN's follow-on to the Advanced Tactical Aircraft (ATA) program for an A-6 replacement; the ATA's resulting A Avenger II had been cancelled due to problems and cost overruns in In the same year, the termination of the Naval Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), an offshoot of USAF's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program, to replace the F resulted in additional fighter capability being added to A-X, which was then renamed A/F-X. Amid increased budget pressure, the Department of Defense's (DoD) Bottom-Up Review (BUR) in September announced MRF's and A/F-X's cancellations, with applicable experience brought to the emerging JAST program.[17] JAST was not meant to develop a new aircraft, instead developing requirements, maturing technologies, and demonstrating concepts for advanced strike warfare.[18]
As JAST progressed, the need for concept demonstrator aircraft by emerged, which would coincide with the full-scale flight demonstrator phase of ASTOVL/CALF. Because the ASTOVL/CALF concept appeared to align with the JAST charter, the two programs were eventually merged in under the JAST name, with the program now serving the USAF, USMC, and USN.[18] JAST was subsequently renamed the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) in , with STOVL submissions by McDonnell Douglas, Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin,[N 2] and Boeing. The JSF was expected to eventually replace large numbers of multi-role and strike fighters in the inventories of the US and its allies, including the Harrier, F, F/A, A, and F[19]
International participation is a key aspect of the JSF program, starting with United Kingdom participation in the ASTOVL program. Many international partners requiring modernization of their air forces that deployed the F and F/A were interested in the JSF. The United Kingdom joined JAST/JSF as a founding member in and thus became the only Tier 1 partner of the JSF program;[20] Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Canada, Australia, and Turkey joined the program during the Concept Demonstration Phase (CDP), with Italy and the Netherlands being Tier 2 partners and the rest Tier 3. Consequently, the aircraft was developed in cooperation with international partners and available for export.[21]
JSF competition[edit]
Boeing and Lockheed Martin were selected in early for CDP, with their concept demonstrator aircraft designated X and X respectively; the McDonnell Douglas team was eliminated and Northrop Grumman and British Aerospace joined the Lockheed Martin team. Each firm would produce two prototype air vehicles to demonstrate conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL), carrier takeoff and landing (CV), and STOVL.[N 3] Lockheed Martin's design would leverage the work on the SDLF system conducted under the ASTOVL/CALF program. The key aspect of the X that enabled STOVL operation, the SDLF system consists of the lift fan in the forward center fuselage that could be activated by engaging a clutch that connects the drive shaft to the turbines and thus augmenting the thrust from the engine's swivel nozzle. Research from prior aircraft incorporating similar systems, such as the Convair Model ,[N 4]Rockwell XFV, and Yakovlev Yak, were also taken into consideration.[23][24][25] By contrast, Boeing's X employed direct lift system that the augmented turbofan would be reconfigured to when engaging in STOVL operation.
Lockheed Martin's commonality strategy was to replace the STOVL variant's SDLF with a fuel tank and the aft swivel nozzle with a two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzle for the CTOL variant.[N 5] This would enable identical aerodynamic configuration for the STOVL and CTOL variants, while the CV variant would have an enlarged wing in order to reduce landing speed for carrier recovery.[26] Due to aerodynamic characteristics and carrier recovery requirements from the JAST merger, the design configuration would settle on a conventional tail compared to the canard delta design from the ASTOVL/CALF; notably, the conventional tail configuration offers much lower risk for carrier recovery compared to the ASTOVL/CALF canard configuration, which was designed without carrier compatibility in mind. This enabled greater commonality between all three variants, as commonality goal was still very high at this stage of the design.[26] Lockheed Martin's prototypes would consist of the XA for demonstrating CTOL before converting it to the XB for STOVL demonstration and the larger-winged XC for CV compatibility demonstration.[27]
The XA first flew on 24 October and conducted flight tests for subsonic and supersonic flying qualities, handling, range, and maneuver performance.[28] After 28 flights, the aircraft was then converted into the XB for STOVL testing, with key changes including the addition of the SDLF, the three-bearing swivel module (3BSM), and roll-control ducts. The XB would successfully demonstrate the SDLF system by performing stable hover, vertical landing, and short takeoff in less than &#;ft (&#;m).[26][29] The XC first flew on 16 December and conducted field landing carrier practice tests.[28]
On 26 October , Lockheed Martin was declared the winner and was awarded the System Development and Demonstration (SDD) contract; Pratt & Whitney was separately awarded to develop the F engine for the JSF. The F designation, which was out of sequence with standard DoD numbering, was allegedly determined on the spot by program manager Major General Mike Hough; this came as a surprise even to Lockheed Martin, which had expected the "F" designation for the JSF.[30]
Design and production[edit]
As the JSF program moved into the SDD phase, the X demonstrator design was modified to create the F combat aircraft. The forward fuselage was lengthened by 5 inches (13&#;cm) to make room for mission avionics, while the horizontal stabilizers were moved 2 inches (&#;cm) aft to retain balance and control. The diverterless supersonic inlet changed from a four-sided to a three-sided cowl shape and was moved 30 inches (76&#;cm) aft. The fuselage section was fuller, the top surface raised by 1 inch (&#;cm) along the centerline to accommodate weapons bays. Following the designation of the X prototypes, the three variants were designated FA (CTOL), FB (STOVL), and FC (CV). Prime contractor Lockheed Martin performs overall systems integration and final assembly and checkout (FACO),[N 6] while Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems supply components for mission systems and airframe.[31][32]
Adding the systems of a fighter aircraft added weight. The FB gained the most, largely due to a decision to enlarge the weapons bays for commonality between variants; the total weight growth was reportedly up to 2, pounds (1,&#;kg), over 8%, causing all STOVL key performance parameter (KPP) thresholds to be missed.[33] In December , the STOVL Weight Attack Team (SWAT) was formed to reduce the weight increase; changes included more engine thrust, thinned airframe members, smaller weapons bays and vertical stabilizers, less thrust fed to the roll-post outlets, and redesigning the wing-mate joint, electrical elements, and the airframe immediately aft of the cockpit.[34] Many changes from the SWAT effort were applied to all three variants for commonality. By September , these efforts had reduced the FB's weight by over 3, pounds (1,&#;kg), while the FA and FC were reduced in weight by 2, pounds (1,&#;kg) and 1, pounds (&#;kg) respectively.[26][35] The weight reduction work cost $ billion and caused an month delay.[36]
The first FA, designated AA-1, was rolled out in Fort Worth, Texas, on 19 February and first flew on 15 December [N 7][37] The aircraft was given the name "Lightning II" in [38]
The software was developed as six releases, or Blocks, for SDD. The first two Blocks, 1A and 1B, readied the F for initial pilot training and multi-level security. Block 2A improved the training capabilities, while 2B was the first combat-ready release planned for the USMC's Initial Operating Capability (IOC). Block 3i retains the capabilities of 2B while having new hardware and was planned for the USAF's IOC. The final release for SDD, Block 3F, would have full flight envelope and all baseline combat capabilities. Alongside software releases, each block also incorporates avionics hardware updates and air vehicle improvements from flight and structural testing.[39] In what is known as "concurrency", some low rate initial production (LRIP) aircraft lots would be delivered in early Block configurations and eventually upgraded to Block 3F once development is complete.[40] After 17,&#;flight test hours, the final flight for the SDD phase was completed in April [41] Like the F, the F has been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft efforts, as well as potential vulnerabilities in the integrity of the supply chain.[42][43][44]
Testing found several major problems: early FB airframes had premature cracking,[N 8] the FC arrestor hook design was unreliable, fuel tanks were too vulnerable to lightning strikes, the helmet display had problems, and more. Software was repeatedly delayed due to its unprecedented scope and complexity. In , the DoD Joint Estimate Team (JET) estimated that the program was 30 months behind the public schedule.[45][46] In , the program was "re-baselined"; that is, its cost and schedule goals were changed, pushing the IOC from the planned to July [47][48] The decision to simultaneously test, fix defects, and begin production was criticized as inefficient; in , Under Secretary of Defense for AcquisitionFrank Kendall called it "acquisition malpractice".[49] The three variants shared just 25% of their parts, far below the anticipated commonality of 70%.[50] The program received considerable criticism for cost overruns and for the total projected lifetime cost, as well as quality management shortcomings by contractors.[51][52]
The JSF program was expected to cost about $ billion in acquisition in base-year dollars when SDD was awarded in [53][54] As early as , the Government Accountability Office (GAO) had identified major program risks in cost and schedule.[55] The costly delays strained the relationship between the Pentagon and contractors; Program Executive Officer Lt. General Christopher Bogdan highlighted the frayed relationship in [56] By , delays and cost overruns had pushed the F program's expected lifetime (i.e., to ) cost to $ trillion in then-year dollars: $ billion for acquisition plus $ trillion for operations and maintenance.[57][58][59] The unit cost of LRIP lot 13 FA was $ million.[60] Delays in development and operational test & evaluation has pushed full-rate production to [61][62]
Upgrades and further development[edit]
The first combat-capable Block 2B configuration, which had basic air-to-air and strike capabilities, was declared ready by the USMC in July [1] The Block 3F configuration began operational test and evaluation (OT&E) in December , the completion of which will conclude SDD.[63] The F program is also conducting sustainment and upgrade development, with early LRIP aircraft gradually upgraded to the baseline Block 3F standard by [64]
The F is expected to be continually upgraded over its lifetime. The first upgrade program, called Continuous Capability Development and Delivery (C2D2) began in and is currently planned to run to The near-term development priority of C2D2 is Block 4, which would integrate additional weapons, including those unique to international customers, refresh the avionics, improve ESM capabilities, and add Remotely Operated Video Enhanced Receiver (ROVER) support.[65] C2D2 also places greater emphasis on agile software development to enable quicker releases.[66] In , the Air Force Life Cycle Management Center (AFLCMC) awarded contracts to General Electric and Pratt & Whitney to develop more powerful and efficient adaptive cycle engines for potential application in the F, leveraging the research done under the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP).[67]
Defense contractors have offered upgrades to the F outside of official program contracts. In , Northrop Grumman disclosed its development of a directional infrared countermeasures (DIRCM) suite, named Threat Nullification Defensive Resource (ThNDR). The countermeasure system would share the same space as the Distributed Aperture System (DAS) sensors and acts as a laser missile jammer to protect against infrared-homing missiles.[68]
Procurement and international participation[edit]
The United States is the primary customer and financial backer, with planned procurement of 1, FAs for the USAF, FBs and 67 FCs for the USMC, and FCs for the USN.[5] Additionally, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Canada, Turkey, Australia, Norway, and Denmark have agreed to contribute US$&#;billion towards development costs, with the United Kingdom contributing about 10% of the planned development costs as the sole Tier 1 partner.[69] The initial plan was that the U.S. and eight major partner nations would acquire over 3, Fs through [70] The three tiers of international participation generally reflect financial stake in the program, the amount of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the order in which countries can obtain production aircraft.[71] Alongside program partner countries, Israel and Singapore have joined as Security Cooperative Participants (SCP).[72][73][74] Sales to SCP and non-partner nations are made through the Pentagon's Foreign Military Sales program.[75] Turkey was removed from the F program in July over security concerns.[76][77][N 9]
Japan announced on 20 December its intent to purchase 42 Fs to replace the F-4 Phantom II, with 38 to be assembled domestically and deliveries beginning in [79] Due to delays in development and testing, many initial orders have been postponed. Italy reduced its order from to 90 Fs in Australia decided to buy the F/AF Super Hornet in and the EAG Growler in as interim measures.[80][81]
On 3 April , the Auditor General of CanadaMichael Ferguson published a report outlining problems with Canada's procurement of the jet; the report states that the government knowingly understated the final cost of 65 Fs by $10 billion.[82] Following the Federal Election, the Canadian government under the Liberal Party decided not to proceed with a sole-sourced purchase and launched a competition to choose an aircraft.[83]
In January , Singapore officially announced its plan to buy a small number of Fs for an evaluation of capabilities and suitability before deciding on more to replace its F fleet.[84] In May , Poland announced plans to buy 32 FAs to replace its Soviet-era jets; the contract was signed on 31 January [85][86]
Design[edit]
Overview[edit]
The F is a family of single-engine, supersonic, stealth multirole fighters.[87] The second fifth generation fighter to enter US service and the first operational supersonic STOVL stealth fighter, the F emphasizes low observables, advanced avionics and sensor fusion that enable a high level of situational awareness and long range lethality;[88][89][90] the USAF considers the aircraft its primary strike fighter for conducting suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD) missions, owing to the advanced sensors and mission systems.[91]
The F has a wing-tail configuration with two vertical stabilizers canted for stealth. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons,[N 10]rudders, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); leading edge root extensions also run forwards to the inlets. The relatively short foot wingspan of the FA and FB is set by the requirement to fit inside USN amphibious assault ship parking areas and elevators; the FC's larger wing is more fuel efficient.[92][93] The fixed diverterless supersonic inlets (DSI) use a bumped compression surface and forward-swept cowl to shed the boundary layer of the forebody away from the inlets, which form a Y-duct for the engine.[94] Structurally, the F drew upon lessons from the F; composites comprise 35% of airframe weight, with the majority being bismaleimide and composite epoxy materials as well as some carbon nanotube-reinforced epoxy in newer production lots.[95][96][97] The F is considerably heavier than the lightweight fighters it replaces, with the lightest variant having an empty weight of 29,&#;lb (13,&#;kg); much of the weight can be attributed to the internal weapons bays and the extensive avionics carried.[98]
While lacking the raw performance of the larger twin-engine F, the F has kinematics competitive with fourth generation fighters such as the F and F/A, especially with ordnance mounted because the F's internal weapons carriage eliminates parasitic drag from external stores.[99] All variants have a top speed of Mach , attainable with full internal payload. The powerful F engine gives good subsonic acceleration and energy, with supersonic dash in afterburner. The large stabilitors, leading edge extensions and flaps, and canted rudders provide excellent high alpha (angle-of-attack) characteristics, with a trimmed alpha of 50°. Relaxed stability and fly-by-wire controls provide excellent handling qualities and departure resistance.[][] Having over double the F's internal fuel, the F has considerably greater combat radius, while stealth also enables a more efficient mission flight profile.[]
Sensors and avionics[edit]
The F's mission systems are among the most complex aspects of the aircraft. The avionics and sensor fusion are designed to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and command and control capabilities and facilitate network-centric warfare.[87][] Key sensors include the Northrop GrummanAN/APGactive electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, BAE Systems AN/ASQ Barracuda electronic warfare system, Northrop Grumman/Raytheon AN/AAQ Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Lockheed Martin AN/AAQ Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and Northrop Grumman AN/ASQ Communications, Navigation, and Identification (CNI) suite. The F was designed with sensor intercommunication to provide a cohesive image of the local battlespace and availability for any possible use and combination with one another; for example, the APG radar also acts as a part of the electronic warfare system.[]
Much of the F's software was developed in C and C++programming languages, while Ada83 code from the F was also used; the Block 3F software has &#;million lines of code.[][] The Green Hills SoftwareIntegrity DOBreal-time operating system (RTOS) runs on integrated core processors (ICPs); data networking includes the IEEE b and Fibre Channel buses.[][] To enable fleet software upgrades for the software-defined radio systems and greater upgrade flexibility and affordability, the avionics leverage commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) components when practical.[][][] The mission systems software, particularly for sensor fusion, was one of the program's most difficult parts and responsible for substantial program delays.[N 11][][]
The APG radar uses electronic scanning for rapid beam agility and incorporates passive and active air-to-air modes, strike modes, and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) capability, with multiple target tracking at ranges in excess of 80&#;nmi (&#;km). The antenna is tilted backwards for stealth.[] Complementing the radar is the AAQ DAS, which consists of six infrared sensors that provide all-aspect missile launch warning and target tracking; the DAS acts as a situational awareness infrared search-and-track (SAIRST) and gives the pilot spherical infrared and night-vision imagery on the helmet visor.[] The ASQ Barracuda electronic warfare system has ten radio frequency antennas embedded into the edges of the wing and tail for all-aspect radar warning receiver (RWR). It also provides sensor fusion of radio frequency and infrared tracking functions, geolocation threat targeting, and multispectral image countermeasures for self-defense against missiles. The electronic warfare system is capable of detecting and jamming hostile radars.[] The AAQ EOTS is mounted internally behind a faceted low-observable window under the nose and performs laser targeting, forward-looking infrared (FLIR), and long range IRST functions.[] The ASQ CNI suite uses a half dozen different physical links, including the Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL), for covert CNI functions.[][] Through sensor fusion, information from radio frequency receivers and infrared sensors are combined to form a single tactical picture for the pilot. The all-aspect target direction and identification can be shared via MADL to other platforms without compromising low observability, while Link 16 is present for communication with legacy systems.[]
The F was designed from the outset to incorporate improved processors, sensors, and software enhancements over its lifespan. Technology Refresh 3, which includes a new core processor and a new cockpit display, is planned for Lot 15 aircraft.[] Lockheed Martin has offered the Advanced EOTS for the Block 4 configuration; the improved sensor fits into the same area as the baseline EOTS with minimal changes.[] In June , Lockheed Martin picked Raytheon for improved DAS.[] The USAF has studied the potential for the F to orchestrate attacks by unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs) via its sensors and communications equipment.[]
Stealth and signatures[edit]
Stealth is a key aspect of the F's design, and radar cross-section (RCS) is minimized through careful shaping of the airframe and the use of radar-absorbent materials (RAM); visible measures to reduce RCS include alignment of edges, serration of skin panels, and the masking of the engine face and turbine. Additionally, the F's diverterless supersonic inlet (DSI) uses a compression bump and forward-swept cowl rather than a splitter gap or bleed system to divert the boundary layer away from the inlet duct, eliminating the diverter cavity and further reducing radar signature.[94][][] The RCS of the F has been characterized as lower than a metal golf ball at certain frequencies and angles; in some conditions, the F compares favorably to the F in stealth.[][][] For maintainability, the F's stealth design took lessons learned from prior stealth aircraft such as the F; the F's radar-absorbent fibermat skin is more durable and requires less maintenance than older topcoats.[] The aircraft also has reduced infrared and visual signatures as well as strict controls of radio frequency emitters to prevent their detection.[][][] The F's stealth design is primarily focused on high-frequency X-band wavelengths;[]low-frequency radars can spot stealthy aircraft due to Rayleigh scattering, but such radars are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and lack precision.[][][] To disguise its RCS, the aircraft can mount four Luneburg lens reflectors.[]
Noise from the F caused concerns in residential areas near potential bases for the aircraft, and residents near two such bases—Luke Air Force Base, Arizona, and Eglin Air Force Base, Florida—requested environmental impact studies in and respectively.[] Although the noise level in decibels were comparable to those of prior fighters such as the F, the sound power of the F is stronger particularly at lower frequencies.[] Subsequent surveys and studies have indicated that the noise of the F was not perceptibly different from the F and F/AE/F, though the greater low-frequency noise was noticeable for some observers.[][][]
Cockpit[edit]
The glass cockpit was designed to give the pilot good situational awareness. The main display is a by 8-inch (50 by 20&#;cm) panoramic touchscreen, which shows flight instruments, stores management, CNI information, and integrated caution and warnings; the pilot can customize the arrangement of the information. Below the main display is a smaller stand-by display.[] The cockpit has a speech-recognition system developed by Adacel.[] The F does not have a head-up display; instead, flight and combat information is displayed on the visor of the pilot's helmet in a helmet-mounted display system (HMDS).[] The one-piece tinted canopy is hinged at the front and has an internal frame for structural strength. The Martin-Baker US16E ejection seat is launched by a twin-catapult system housed on side rails.[][] There is a right-hand side stick and throttle hands-on throttle-and-stick system. For life support, an onboard oxygen-generation system (OBOGS) is fitted and powered by the Integrated Power Package (IPP), with an auxiliary oxygen bottle and backup oxygen system for emergencies.[]
The Vision Systems International[N 12] helmet display is a key piece of the F's human-machine interface. Instead of the head-up display mounted atop the dashboard of earlier fighters, the HMDS puts flight and combat information on the helmet visor, allowing the pilot to see it no matter which way he or she is facing.[] Infrared and night vision imagery from the Distributed Aperture System can be displayed directly on the HMDS and enables the pilot to "see through" the aircraft. The HDMS allows an F pilot to fire missiles at targets even when the nose of the aircraft is pointing elsewhere by cuing missile seekers at high angles off-boresight.[][] Each helmet costs $,[] The HMDS weighs more than traditional helmets, and there is concern that it can endanger lightweight pilots during ejection.[]
Due to the HMDS's vibration, jitter, night-vision and sensor display problems during development, Lockheed Martin and Elbit issued a draft specification in for an alternative HMDS based on the AN/AVS-9 night vision goggles as backup, with BAE Systems chosen later that year.[][] A cockpit redesign would be needed to adopt an alternative HMDS.[][] Following progress on the baseline helmet, development on the alternative HMDS was halted in October [][] In , the Gen 3 helmet with improved night vision camera, new liquid crystal displays, automated alignment and software enhancements was introduced with LRIP lot 7.[]
Armament[edit]
To preserve its stealth shaping, the F has two internal weapons bays with four weapons stations. The two outboard weapon stations each can carry ordnance up to 2,&#;lb (1,&#;kg), or 1,&#;lb (&#;kg) for FB, while the two inboard stations carry air-to-air missiles. Air-to-surface weapons for the outboard station include the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM), Paveway series of bombs, Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW), and cluster munitions (Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser). The station can also carry multiple smaller munitions such as the GBU Small Diameter Bombs (SDB), GBU/B SDB II, and the SPEAR 3anti-tank missiles; up to four SDBs can be carried per station for the FA and FC, and three for FB.[][][] The inboard station can carry the AIM AMRAAM. Two compartments behind the weapons bays contain flares, chaff, and towed decoys.[]
The aircraft can use six external weapons stations for missions that do not require stealth.[] The wingtip pylons each can carry an AIM-9X or AIM ASRAAM and are canted outwards to reduce their radar cross-section.[][] Additionally, each wing has a 5,&#;lb (2,&#;kg) inboard station and a 2,&#;lb (1,&#;kg) middle station, or 1,&#;lb (&#;kg) for FB. The external wing stations can carry large air-to-surface weapons that would not fit inside the weapons bays such as the AGM Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missile. An air-to-air missile load of eight AIMs and two AIM-9s is possible using internal and external weapons stations; a configuration of six 2,&#;lb (&#;kg) bombs, two AIMs and two AIM-9s can also be arranged.[][][] The FA is armed with a 25&#;mmGAU/A rotary cannon mounted internally near the left wing root with rounds carried; the gun is more effective against ground targets than the 20 mm cannon carried by other USAF fighters. The FB and FC have no internal gun and instead can use a Terma A/S multi-mission pod (MMP) carrying the GAU/A and rounds; the pod is mounted on the centerline of the aircraft and shaped to reduce its radar cross-section.[][] In lieu of the gun, the pod can also be used for different equipment and purposes, such as electronic warfare, aerial reconnaissance, or rear-facing tactical radar.[][]
Lockheed Martin is developing a weapon rack called Sidekick that would enable the internal outboard station to carry two AIMs, thus increasing the internal air-to-air payload to six missiles, currently offered for Block 4.[][] Block 4 will also have a rearranged hydraulic line and bracket to allow the FB to carry four SDBs per internal outboard station; integration of the MBDA Meteor is also planned.[][] The USAF and USN are planning to integrate the AGMG AARGM-ER internally in the FA and FC.[] Norway and Australia are funding an adaptation of the Naval Strike Missile (NSM) for the F; designated Joint Strike Missile (JSM), two missiles can be carried internally with an additional four externally.[] Nuclear weapons delivery via internal carriage of the B61 nuclear bomb is planned for Block 4B in [] Both hypersonic missiles and direct energy weapons such as solid-state laser are currently being considered as future upgrades.[N 13][] Lockheed Martin is studying integrating a fiber laser that uses spectral beam combining multiple individual laser modules into a single high-power beam, which can be scaled to various levels.[]
The USAF plans for the FA to take up the close air support (CAS) mission in contested environments; amid criticism that it is not as well suited as a dedicated attack platform, USAF chief of staff Mark Welsh placed a focus on weapons for CAS sorties, including guided rockets, fragmentation rockets that shatter into individual projectiles before impact, and more compact ammunition for higher capacity gun pods.[] Fragmentary rocket warheads create greater effects than cannon shells as each rocket creates a "thousand-round burst", delivering more projectiles than a strafing run.[]
Engine[edit]
The single-engine aircraft is powered by the Pratt & Whitney F low-bypass augmented turbofan with rated thrust of 43,&#;lbf (&#;kN). Derived from the Pratt & Whitney F used by the F, the F has a larger fan and higher bypass ratio to increase subsonic fuel efficiency, and unlike the F, is not optimized for supercruise.[] The engine contributes to the F's stealth by having a low-observable augmenter, or afterburner, that incorporates fuel injectors into thick curved vanes; these vanes are covered by ceramic radar-absorbent materials and mask the turbine. The stealthy augmenter had problems with pressure pulsations, or "screech", at low altitude and high speed early in its development.[] The low-observable axisymmetric nozzle consists of 15 partially overlapping flaps that create a sawtooth pattern at the trailing edge, which reduces radar signature and creates shed vortices that reduce the infrared signature of the exhaust plume.[] Due to the engine's large dimensions, the USN had to modify its underway replenishment system to facilitate at-sea logistics support.[]
The FPW variant for the FB incorporates the SDLF to allow STOVL operations. Designed by Lockheed Martin and developed by Rolls-Royce, the SDLF, also known as the Rolls-Royce LiftSystem, consists of the lift fan, drive shaft, two roll posts, and a "three-bearing swivel module" (3BSM). The thrust vectoring 3BSM nozzle allows the main engine exhaust to be deflected downward at the tail of the aircraft and is moved by a "fueldraulic" actuator that uses pressurized fuel as the working fluid.[][][] Unlike the Harrier's Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine that entirely uses direct engine thrust for lift, the FB's system augments the swivel nozzle's thrust with the lift fan; the fan is powered by the low-pressure turbine through a drive shaft when engaged with a clutch and placed near the front of the aircraft to provide a counterbalancing thrust.[][][] Roll control during slow flight is achieved by diverting unheated engine bypass air through wing-mounted thrust nozzles called roll posts.[][]
An alternative engine, the General Electric/Rolls-Royce F, was being developed in the s; originally, F engines from Lot 6 onward were competitively tendered. Using technology from the General Electric YF, The F was claimed to have a greater temperature margin than the F[] The F was canceled in December due to lack of funding.[][]
In , the Adaptive Engine Transition Program (AETP) was launched to develop and test adaptive cycle engines, with one major potential application being the re-engining of the F Both GE and P&W were awarded contracts to develop 45,&#;lbf (&#;kN) class demonstrators, with the designations XA and XA respectively.[67]
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