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1 PASTIMES The Context of Contemporary Leisure fifth edition RUTH V. RUSSELL

2 Sagamore Publishing LLC All rights reserved. Publishers: Joseph J. Bannon and Peter L. Bannon Director of Sales and Marketing: William A. Anderson Director of Development and Production: Susan M. Davis Technology Manager: Christopher Thompson Production Coordinator: Amy S. Dagit ISBN print edition: ISBN ebook: LCCN: Sagamore Publishing LLC N. Federal Dr. Urbana, IL

3 For Pres and Aloise iii

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5 CONTENTS Prefacexi About the Authorxii Acknowledgmentsxiii PART ONE Leisure as a Condition of Humanity: Personal Context Chapter 1 The Meanings of Leisure 3 Preview 3 Key Terms 3 Meanings in the Humanities 4 Literature 4 Art 5 Music 8 Meanings From History 9 Stone Age: Artists 9 Ancient Greece: The Leisure Ideal Ancient Rome: Spectacle Early Polynesians: The First Tourists? Muhammad s Early Empire: Relaxation Medieval Europe: The Work Ethic The Renaissance: Humanism Colonial America: Purposeful Pastimes The Industrial Revolution: Leisure as Problem Solver Today s Connotations Leisure as Free Time Leisure as Recreational Activity Leisure as Special Spirit What We Understand About Leisure s Meanings References Chapter 2 The Value of Having Fun Preview Key Terms Freedom Intrinsic Meaning v

6 Happiness Pleasure Play Humor Relaxation Solitude and Silence Ritual Commitment Risk Spirituality What We Understand About the Value of Leisure References Chapter 3 Explaining Leisure Behavior Preview Key Terms Demographic Explanations of Leisure Behavior Theories Explaining Leisure Behavior From Psychology From Sociology From Anthropology What We Understand About Explaining Leisure Behavior References Chapter 4 Leisure and Well-Being Preview Key Terms Building Blocks of Well-Being Leisure and Physical Well-Being Leisure and Social Well-Being Leisure and Intellectual Well-Being Leisure and Emotional Well-Being What We Understand About Leisure and Well-Being References vi

7 PART TWO Leisure as a Cultural Mirror: Societal Context Chapter 5 Leisure s Anthropology Preview Key Terms Leisure and Culture Characteristics of Culture Cultural Change Hunches About the Earliest Human Cultures Cultural Development and Leisure Cultural Vitality Modernity What We Understand About Leisure and Culture References Chapter 6 Leisure s Geography Preview Key Terms Leisure as Space Crowding Distance Leisure as Place Place Identity Place Dependence Environmental Impact What We Understand About Leisure s Geographical Significance References Chapter 7 Leisure and Technology Preview Key Terms Leisure and Technology Linkages Scientific and Military Technologies Have Become Popular Leisure Technology Developed Specifically for Leisure Has Increased Technology Expands Leisure Identities Can Be Created Through Leisure Technology vii

8 The Issue of Goodness What We Understand About Leisure and Technology References Chapter 8 Popular Culture Preview Key Terms The Importance of Popular Culture Characterizing Popular Culture Examples The Role of Entertainment What We Understand About Popular Culture References Chapter 9 Taboo Recreation Preview Key Terms Leisure and Deviance Examples of Taboo Recreation Vandalism Gambling Risky Health Behaviors Violence in Sport Explanations of Taboo Recreation What We Understand About Taboo Recreation References PART THREE Leisure as Instrument: Systems Context Chapter 10 For and Against Productivity Preview Key Terms Balancing Leisure and Work Why Work? Work for Leisure or Leisure for Work? viii

9 Economic Consequences Leisure as Economic Development Does Leisure Drive Capitalism? Consumerism How Leisure Benefits and Harms an Economy What We Understand About Leisure, Work, and Economics References Chapter 11 The Freedom and Tyranny of Time Preview Key Terms Types of Time Cyclical Time Mechanical Time Biological Time Cultural Time Are Time and Leisure Friends? Time Tyrannies What We Understand About Leisure and Time References Chapter 12 Is Leisure Fair? Preview Key Terms Prohibitions and Permissions Examples Women Persons With Disabilities Gays and Lesbians Racial and Ethnic Minorities What We Understand About Leisure Equity References Chapter 13 Leisure Systems Preview Key Terms Why Leisure Systems Are Important ix

10 Leisure Resource Types Tourism Cultural Arts Sports Outdoor Recreation Leisure Resource Sponsors Public Agencies Private Agencies Commercial Agencies Careers in the Leisure System What We Understand About Leisure Systems References Index x

11 PREFACE The purpose of this fifth edition of Pastimes is to extend the discussion about leisure in society to new concepts supported by new research findings and commentary. Throughout, I have pursued the most interesting, relevant, exciting, and contemporary information possible. This wasn t at all difficult; leisure is simply a very intriguing subject. First, as an introduction to the phenomenon of leisure, the book must be current. Momentous changes, actual and alleged, have always been the root of leisure expressions and experiences. To match, Pastimes again reflects a wide range of material from the disciplines of leisure studies, sociology, psychology, economics, political science, anthropology, geography, the humanities, and media and cultural studies. Second, as a learning tool, this fifth edition teaches more. It contains new illustrations of concepts through field-based cases, biographical features, exploratory activities, and research studies. While the basic organization remains similar, in addition to new material, some former concepts have been relocated. For example, the topic of history and its meanings for leisure is now combined into one chapter. Also, the discussion of work is now combined with that about economics in the same chapter. Also, theories explaining leisure behavior are now organized according to their home discipline. A chapter on well-being and leisure is a new feature, and because of the amazing speed of change, the chapter on leisure and technology has been completely rewritten. The chapter on time has also been expanded. Finally, the last chapter on leisure systems has a new section on professional preparation. More than a textbook, Pastimes is very much a point of view. Leisure is presented as a human phenomenon that is individual and collective, vital and frivolous, historical and contemporary, factual and subjective, good and bad. xi

12 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Dr. Ruth V. Russell is professor emeritus in the Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Studies at Indiana University. She is a former trustee of the National Recreation and Park Association and has served as president of the Society of Park and Recreation Educators. Professional experience includes the San Diego Recreation and Parks Department, San Diego Imperial Counties Girl Scout Council, and Chateau La Jolla Retirement Center. Dr. Russell has authored numerous textbooks (and a cookbook), published research in refereed journals, and lectured internationally. Presently her pursuits include RVing, walking, competing in pickleball, and culinary projects. xii

13 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This edition is the result of what I have learned from years of engagement with leisure theory and research, as well as personal and professional practice. Signs of my worldwide wanderings are also evident. Throughout, I have felt grateful to many people: family, friends, students, university and practitioner colleagues, and fellow recreation participants. In particular, thank you to Pat Setser for her constant patience and support. I also wish to especially thank Trish Ardovino, Boyd Hegarty, Debbie Smith, Jeff Nix, Austin Anderson, and Agnes Kovacs, former doctoral students who worked with me in courses about this subject at Indiana University, and who are now distinguished colleagues in their own right. I also learned a great deal from my IU collaborator, Rasul Mowatt, with whom I shared the efforts of developing many grant applications and teaching initiatives. Learning is the greatest of joys, and I am lucky to be able to devote my life to it. xiii

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15 P A R T O N E LEISURE AS A CONDITION OF HUMANITY Personal Context We are human in large part because of our leisure. We begin our exploration of leisure by considering its significance for us personally. Leisure helps shape us as human beings. It is expressed throughout our lives and is revealed in our growth, health, motives, feelings, and actions. Chapter 1 Demonstrates leisure s meanings for us through the humanities, in ancient and contemporary histories, and according to today s connotations. Chapter 2 Discusses the benefits of leisure to us, including our happiness, freedom, pleasure, and spirituality. Chapter 3 Offers some explanations about our leisure choices and behaviors. Chapter 4 Traces the ways leisure helps us grow and thrive.

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17 C H A P T E R O N E THE MEANINGS OF LEISURE Preview What is leisure? Leisure is an intricate and dynamic concept with different meanings depending on the context. What are the contexts of leisure meaning? Leisure s meanings can be found in the humanities, history, and today s connotations. Where do we find meanings of leisure in the humanities? Perhaps leisure can be best understood through the ideas portrayed in a story, a song, and a painting. What are the clues to meanings of leisure in history? From the beginning of human culture, leisure has been a part of everyday life, and these legacies endure today. What do we understand leisure to mean today? Leisure is individually and culturally defined, but most common are the themes of free time, recreational activity, and a special spirit. Key Terms Humanities Impressionism Schole Olympian Bread and circusus Ludi Feudalism Work ethic Renaissance Humanism Industrial Revolution Social movements Settlement houses Discretionary time 21

18 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure Skiing through a pine forest. Watching a movie. Coaching a Little League team. Playing a pickup game of basketball. Planting geraniums. Hanging out with friends. Walking the dog. Knitting a scarf. Scrapbooking. These and a wide array of other experiences are our pastimes our leisure. To have leisure is one of the earliest dreams of human beings: to be free to pursue what we want, to spend our time meaningfully in pleasurable ways, to live in a state of grace (Godbey, , p. 1). In this chapter, we set the stage for understanding the essential humanness of leisure by exploring its foundational meanings. Because leisure is a complex concept with different meanings depending on the people, the Figure place, and the time, defining it requires journeys to different peoples, places, and times. First, we define Leisure is a complex concept that leisure through its reflections in the humanities: has different meanings depending literature, art, and music. Next, we examine some on the people, place, and time. of the original meanings of leisure in history, and Shutterstock finally, we summarize leisure s contemporary common connotations. Throughout the discussion, you ll notice that leisure has multiple, and even contradictory, meanings. Meanings in the Humanities The complexity of leisure s meanings is reflected through the humanities. The subjects of the humanities include the arts, such as music, paintings, and stories, which convey what it is like to be human. The word art itself comes from the same root as the word artificial, meaning something made by humans. In creating a song or a poem, songwriters and poets portray their own experience. So, when we listen to a musical performance or read a poem, we understand something about the experience of its creator. In these expressions are ideas, images, and words that serve as a kind of self-reflection, telling us who and what we may be and informing us of our humanness. As well, the humanities introduce us to people we have never met, places we have never visited, and ideas that may have never crossed our minds. Humanities human creations that describe the human experience Literature Literature, in the broadest sense, is widely apparent in everyday life. It is the written art form found in magazine articles, greeting card verses, and blogs, as well as in poetry and novels. Reading literature in itself is a popular leisure expression, and to prove it, Americans spent about $ billion in on books, representing almost a 6% increase in just two years (Association of American Publishers, ). Another example of the popularity of literature is the role-playing literary camps sprouting up across the United States (Otterman, ). Structured around children s books such as the Harry Potter, and Percy Jackson and the Olympians series, both residential and day camp programs feature kids acting out book scenes and situations. Like looking into a mirror, literature offers a view of human life, including leisure. For example, American fiction writer F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote many short stories that 4

19 The Meanings of Leisure tell us about the good-time culture of the s. Labeled his flapper stories, short stories such as The Camel s Back glamorized the social life of the young: Now during the Christmas holidays of there took place in Toledo, forty-one dinner parties, sixteen dances, six luncheons, male and female, twelve teas, four stag dinners, two weddings, and thirteen bridge parties. It was the cumulative effect of all this that moved Perry Parkhurst on the twenty-ninth day of December to a decision. This Medill girl would marry him and she wouldn t marry him. She was having such a good time that she hated to take such a definite step. (Fitzgerald, , p. 35) In comparison, Maya Angelou s () poem Harlem Hopscotch uses the rhythm of a children s street game to express a serious problem in society: One foot down, then hop! It s hot. Good things for the ones that s got. Another jump, now to the left. Everybody for hisself. In the air, now both feet down. Since you black, don t stick around. Food is gone, the rent is due, Curse and cry and then jump two. All the people out of work, Hold for three, then twist and jerk. Cross the line, they count you out. That s what hopping s all about. Both feet flat, the game is done. They think I lost, I think I won. (p. ) In the poem, Angelou uses the children s game of hopscotch to vent frustration and a sense of betrayal. Although the poem is about the injustices of race and social class, it makes light of it by putting it into the rhythm of a classic children s pastime. Or does it? What do you think is meant by the game s outcome in the last line: They think I lost, I think I won? Art People have always had an interest in the beauty of pattern. We enjoy designs of contrast and balance for their own sake. We create our own aesthetic experience every day; we doodle during class, wear jewelry, and make figures with the lawn mower in our yard. The use of pattern also has a commemorative function. The most important events in our religious, social, and political lives, for example, are reflected in images and icons. We take pictures of relatives at family reunions to record the visual memory, and we hang out flags to celebrate a national holiday. In other words, art mirrors what we consider to be both beautiful and important. Because our curiosity is about leisure s meanings, what is considered beautiful and important about leisure through art? 5

20 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure Perhaps one of the most readily recognized reflections of leisure in art comes from the impressionist period. Impressionism is a style of art that presents an immediate impression of an object or event. Impressionist artists try to show what the eye sees at a glance, so the image seems spontaneous. Although painters and other artists have created impressionistic works in several periods of history, the term is most commonly applied to the work of a group of painters exhibiting in Paris from about to What is the impression of leisure in this art? One answer is in the painting Terrace at Sainte-Adresse (Figure ) by Claude Monet. Painted in , Monet s painting depicts vacationers. Out in the water are pleasure boats moored on the left and steamers on the right. In the middle-distance is a fishing boat (just above the parasol). This perhaps represents the transitions from sail to steam, and from the local and traditional life, with the arrival of tourism. This mirrors what was happening at that time in most of coastal France. Fishing villages were changing into resorts, with broad avenues, sidewalks, formal gardens, and large buildings, just as many waters-edge locations have in the years since. The creation of artificial spaces for the visiting tourists changed forever the lives of the fishermen and shopkeepers who once lived there (Herbert, ). Another impressionist painter of the time, Mary Cassatt, painted Woman in Black at the Opera (Figure ). Cassatt presents a woman using her upward-tilted opera glasses to scan the audience. With a bit of humor, Cassatt also placed a man in the distance leaning out of his box to point his glasses in the woman s direction, emphasizing the fun of spying on others (Herbert, ). We can also learn from this painting that leisure defined the upper social class of this era. Impressionism an art style simulating reflected light Figure Claude Monet. Terrace at Sainte-Adresse The Metropolitan Museum of Art, purchased with special contributions and purchase funds given or bequeathed by friends of the Museum, () 6

21 The Meanings of Leisure Figure Mary Cassatt. Woman in Black at the Opera The Hayden Collection. Courtesy The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Even this brief glance at the art of the late s reveals clear meanings of leisure in Paris. Indeed, idle hours and entertainment greatly expanded during this period, particularly for the upper class. As thousands of paintings by impressionist artists portray, by the end of that century, daily life was dominated by theaters, operas, cafés, restaurants, dances, racetracks, gardens, and parks. Tourism expanded as well, with a focus on the beauty of the seaside. u Box Web Explore Romanticism In addition to Impressionism, the artistic tradition of Romanticism provides an interpretation of leisure s meaning. While Impressionism suggests leisure means a daily life dominated by theaters, operas, cafes, dances, gardens, and racetracks, Romanticism in art suggests something different. What is that? Explore the following website and form your own conclusions: (To easily access a complete, updated list of Pastimes links visit www.cronistalascolonias.com.ar). 7

22 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure Music Music is perhaps the most universal activity of humankind. Beginning as the natural sound of the human voice, music over the centuries has taken many forms and reflected many ways of life. People in today s Western cultures express themselves through jazz, rock, rhythm and blues, country, rap, gospel, classical, and many other musical styles through the purchase of CDs, ringtones, digital downloads, music videos, and other musical recordings, of which sales have reached over $ billion (Recording Industry Association of America, ). How might music portray leisure? All forms of music reflect leisure s meanings, but as an initial illustration, we ll consider rock and roll, and Elvis Presley in particular, who remains rock s most indelible image worldwide. In Elvis, millions of young people found more than a new entertainer; they found themselves, or at least an idealized image of themselves, which stood in stark, liberating contrast to the repressed atmosphere of the s. What was this new identity? In Elvis Hound Dog and the flip side s Don t Be Cruel, the highest selling single record of the decade, we find a summary of how Elvis rock and roll represented young people and their leisure of that time. While the straight rock of screaming guitars and drums in Hound Dog emphasizes a wild and raucous sound, a light beat and gentler accompaniment in Don t Be Cruel highlight a sweet melody and lyrics. This makes for a big difference between the sexually aggressive and the playfully innocent. Thus, just like the two sides of this one single record, youth of the s were bumping, although timidly, against the outer edges of a sort of rebellion. u Box The Study Says A New Generation s Vanity Can the lyrics of popular songs reveal something about those who listen to them? Based on a computer analysis of lyrics from three decades ( ) of hit songs, a statistically significant trend toward narcissism and hostility in popular music was found by researchers at the University of Kentucky. The study was controlled for genre to prevent the results from being skewed by the growing popularity of rap and hip-hop. In general it was found that hit songs in the s were more likely to emphasize happy togetherness (e.g., Diana Ross and Lionel Richie sang of two hearts that beat as one ), while today s songs are more likely to be about one very special person: the singer (i.e., Justin Timberlake proclaiming I m bringing sexy back and Beyoncé exulting It s blazin, you watch me in amazement ). Do these findings reflect your understanding? Why or why not? Are other studies available that contradict these results? Source: Tierney, J. (, April 25). A new generation s vanity, heard through hit lyrics. The New York Times. Retrieved from 8

23 The Meanings of Leisure Specifically detailing leisure and summer, later in the s, The Beach Boys sang in All Summer Long, T-shirts, cut-offs, and a pair of thongs (T-shirts, cut-offs, and a pair of thongs) We ve been having fun all summer long. From the opera Porgy and Bess by George and Ira Gershwin, first performed in , a similar sentiment about summer is expressed: Summertime And the livin is easy Fish are jumpin And the cotton is high We can find meanings of leisure in other musical forms as well. For example, in the rap song People Everyday, recorded in by Arrested Development, leisure is about hanging out in the park, putting one s soul at ease. Meanwhile, Gang of Four s Natural s Not In It released in gives us a glimpse of leisure as consumption: The problem of leisure What to do for pleasure Ideal love a new purchase A market of the senses Dream of the perfect life Economic circumstances The body is good business Sell out, maintain the interest Meanings From History It is not really known where civilization, that is, settled community life, originated. The retreat of the last glaciers (about 11, years ago) initiated successive periods of cultural evolution from primitive hunting-and-gathering societies, to the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, and ultimately to the urbanization and industrialization of modern societies. As people gathered together into societies, more formalized rules of conduct emerged, including governments, religions, work occupations, and, of course, leisure. Our contemporary meanings of leisure have been shaped by the histories of these past societies. Let s explore some of them. Stone Age: Artists Our understanding of life for the earliest humans is very much conjecture. Archeologists are not even sure exactly when and where these populations began. But recent discoveries made of 50 samples of symbol-based art from 11 caves in northwestern Spain (Wilford, ) suggest our earliest ancestors lived in what is now Europe some 43, 45, years ago. 9

24 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure Figure Entrance to the Ancient Olympic Stadium today. Ruth V. Russell This is intriguing from a leisure perspective as well. The international team of scientists determined that the art in a cave known as El Castillo was part of the earliest known art. The red handprints found in the cave, for example, were probably made from blowing pigment on a hand placed against the cave wall. Thus, the scientists said this motif implies that depictions of the human hand were among the oldest art known (Wilford, , p. 1). Until these discoveries, archaeologists usually saw prehistoric people as incapable of creating artistic works much beyond simple abstract markings and personal ornamentation. Ancient Greece: The Leisure Ideal Although much has been debated about Greek concepts of leisure (see Sylvester, ), one constant theme from this ancient culture seems to be its focus on leisure as a means to the good life. The philosopher Plato, for example, believed there were spiritual as well as physical rewards from participating in gymnastics. Throughout his writings, Aristotle considered the power to think to be the most unique of human qualities and thus was convinced that a life of contemplation was the proper use of leisure. Yet, to him life should be devoted not only to thinking noble thoughts, but also to doing civic Schole an ancient Greek term for scholarship that is translated today to the word leisure and productive deeds (Hemingway, ). Leisure scholars have labeled these philosophical ideas the leisure ideal. That is, leisure is a force that can ignoble us. This traditional interpretation comes from the Greek concept σχολή, which was translated as schole. This word is also connected to the Latin (licentia and licere) and associated French (loisir) and English (leisure and 10

25 The Meanings of Leisure school) words. Extending these associations, then, the ideal pastime was in pursuit of scholarship: reading, thinking, debating, discussing, and studying. How the ancient Greek people interpreted this advice of their philosophers into daily life provides a legacy for leisure today. For example, intellectual pursuits such as mathematics, poetry, and music were popular. Even in sport, the importance of the leisure ideal is evident. Organized sport was a religious ritual. The ancient Greeks used athletics, as well as dance and drama, as a means to communicate with their gods and goddesses (Lattipongpun, ). For example, excavation at the ancient Olympic site in western Greece shows that the first formalized Olympic Games took place in BC. Originally named for the god Olympian, these games were later held as worship to the god Zeus. Zeus was thought to favor some and to deny victory to others. If an athlete was fined for cheating or bribery, the money was used to make a cult statue of Zeus. Part religious and part sport, the Olympic Games were held every 4 years, and in the first 13 Olympiads, a footrace of meters was the only event. Later, longer running races were added, as well as horse races and weight lifting. One particularly savage sport called pancratium was introduced in BC and combined boxing and wrestling. Scholars tell us that in pancratium, all types of physical attack were encouraged, with eye gouging and biting the only hits not allowed. Of course, athletes in the games were the aristocratic young men who had the privilege of leisure. Social distinctions were prominent in all of ancient Greek leisure. What Plato and Aristotle taught about leisure was available only to the upper classes. In Athens at the time, native-born males who were citizens were a privileged leisure class. Their control of a system of slaves and the limitations on women empowered their lives of leisure. Yet, within this contradiction to the leisure ideal, there is another contradiction. There is some evidence, for example, that women had their own games in Olympia (Pausanias, ). These were the Heraea Games, held every 4 years to honor the goddess Hera, the consort of Zeus. Here, unmarried women competed in foot races, with winners receiving the traditional olive branch garland. Putting all this rich complexity of leisure meaning together, then, we can conclude that for the ancient Greeks leisure was both intellectual and physical. It was the importance of developing both the mind and the body through participation, learning, and noble actions. The good life of leisure for the Greeks was an ideal maintaining that knowledge and physicality lead to virtuous choices and conduct, which in turn lead to true pleasure. But this leisure ideal was only available to the socially privileged. Olympian one of the ancient Greek gods; being like the god, especially in being calm and untroubled by ordinary affairs Ancient Rome: Spectacle Films and television often portray the ancient Romans as military conquerors as well as ardent pleasure seekers. While there is some truth to these images, this civilization also shaped many other civilizations with important advancements. Even today the remains of vast building projects, including roads and bridges, enormous aqueducts, temples, and theaters, as well as entire towns and cities throughout Africa and Europe, stand on Roman foundations. Rome began its rise to power around BC. It prospered under a policy of expansion by using both military and political methods until around AD. Although 11

26 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure ancient Romans borrowed a good deal of Greek philosophy and copied Greek art and architecture, they had a unique notion about leisure. For example, as Rome conquered its neighbors (Greece, Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, and others), the problem of overseeing an immense empire began to require control of the social order. Discipline and careful regulation of a growing middle class of people were required. The ancient Romans accomplished this by what today we would refer to as mass leisure. There were heated public baths, parade grounds for various ball games, and grand athletic exhibitions. Often the middle-class masses of people were spectators to gladiators fighting each other to the death and to political prisoners, criminals, and slaves being thrown to wild animals. Based on the policy of bread and circuses, leisure as spectacle was used as a form of social control and as a means whereby rulers and officials could win popular favor. For example, beginning about 31 BC, such ludi, or public games, became annual events in the Roman calendar (Ibrahim, ). By the end of the Roman Empire, the year included official holidays, with of them for theatrical entertainments, 64 devoted to chariot races, and 10 given over to gladiatorial combats (Roberts, ). Specialized facilities were provided for these events. The oldest of these, the Circus Maximus, was built for horse races, trick riding, mock cavalry battles, and chariot races. Amphitheaters hosted gladiatorial combats, with the largest, the Colosseum, holding thousands of spectators. The Colosseum also hosted the naumachiae, a ship battle requiring the flooding of the Colosseum floor. Yet, the greatest of all naumachiae was staged by Claudius outside Rome in Lake Fucine. A total of 19, men boarded a fleet of 50 ships and battled each other beginning at a.m., and by that afternoon 3, of them were dead (Butler, ). As the spectacles became more popular, and more widely used by emperors to gain support from the people, they also became more and more lavish and depraved as each tried to outdo his predecessor. Enormous amounts of money and human resources were spent on the games, which many historians conclude ultimately degraded the Roman culture. Restrictions began to be imposed on these practices. For example, gladiator fights ended in the east of the empire at the end of the fourth century and in the west at the end of the fifth century. Bread and circuses a metaphor for a superficial means of appeasement; the ancient Roman formula for the well-being of the population, and hence a political strategy unto itself Ludi a Latin word for public games and festivities Figure The Coliseum in Rome today. Ruth V. Russell Early Polynesians: The First Tourists? Today, Hawaii is one of the world s most popular tourist destinations. Ironically its early settlement perhaps can be viewed as the effect of tourism itself. Polynesian 12

27 The Meanings of Leisure seafarers were skilled ocean navigators and astronomers who traveled long distances at a time when boats rarely went out of sight of land. While scholars still debate the founding history of Hawaii, some believe the first Polynesians arrived there around AD from the Marquesas (Kamakau, ). These Polynesian voyagers (sometimes an entire village) loaded up their double-hulled canoes with animals, plants, food, and water and headed out into the middle of the Pacific Ocean. They had more than 2, miles to go Figure before they would reach the island Remains of a pok-a-tok court in Mexico s Yucatan of Kauai (Howe, ). But they region. In ancient new world societies, a game didn t know that; they didn t know resembling basketball and played on a huge court what lay ahead of them at all. They the size of a football field was believed to be part surely did know, however, about of a religious ceremony, as the losers were often the dangers of swamping or capsizing in heavy seas. Nonetheless, sacrificed to the gods. Ruth V. Russell archaeological evidence indicates that by about AD, the Polynesians had settled the vast Polynesian triangle with its northern corner at Hawaii, the eastern corner at Easter Island, and the southern corner in New Zealand (Lowe, ). What was their motive? Were they trying to colonize or to escape famine, drought, or overpopulation? Were they exploring? No one really knows, of course, but given the dangers and unknowns about the trips, we can at least conclude their actions reveal an adventuresome spirit, a yearning for travel. Muhammad s Early Empire: Relaxation Muhammad, which means praised one, was the founder of the religion of Islam and one of the most influential people of all time. Within years after his death, in AD, Muslims had carried his teachings into other parts of the Middle East, North Africa, Europe, and Asia. Today, Islam is the second largest world religion, with about billion followers, or 23% of the world s population (The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, ). Included in the teachings of Muhammad is another meaning of leisure still lived today. Early Muslims learned Muhammad s philosophy of leisure through one of his sayings: Recreate your hearts hour after hour, for the tired hearts go blind (from the Hadith). In the Qur an (the Islamic holy book), paradise for the faithful is envisioned as a verdant garden where chosen men recline on beautiful carpets next to rippling water and delight in the fragrance of flowers. This vision of relaxing was practiced by ancient wealthy Muslims, who spent hours among lush landscapes of pools, pavilions, and fountains. During the day, they conversed with friends and played chess. At night, musicians provided entertainment, and dancers performed until dawn. Women from this period were segregated from men, 13

28 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure but the wives and other female relatives and children of the wealthiest men lived similarly relaxing lives within the palace in a special place called the harem. Medieval Europe: The Work Ethic The Middle Ages, or medieval period of human history, describes the era between ancient and modern times in Western Europe, extending from the end of the Roman Empire (about AD) to the s. The former Roman Empire was divided into large estates called kingdoms and ruled by wealthy landowners. Later, this evolved into the system of feudalism, which altered leisure s meaning again. Feudalism produced a social class and an individual, powerbased meaning of leisure according to distinctions between lords, vassals, and fiefs. A lord was a wealthy nobleman who owned the land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land and thus protection by the lord, and the land itself was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord (Ganshof, as cited in McKitterick, ). This meant leisure expression was personally owned and bartered. As well, leisure was never far removed from a basis in violence. For example, as practice for defending the fiefdom, lords and their vassals were particularly interested in hunting and sport contests as means to keep their fighting skills and strategies sharp (Labarge, ). Hunting with hounds and falconry was the most popular, and tournaments were mock fighting events. When the events turned into wild melees, a new variation of the tournament developed: The Round Table, which was also a social occasion accompanied by jousting with blunted weapons, wrestling, darts, and even skipping contests (Labarge, ). Pastimes within the fiefdom s castle also included performing minstrels (musicians, acrobats, jugglers, and storytellers all in one); games of backgammon, checkers, and chess; and also social drinking, gambling, and theatrical performances. However, and as you might already suspect, the story of leisure during the Middle Ages includes a subtext. Life was difficult for everyone. People lived only an average of 30 years. Very few could read or write, and much superstition surrounded daily life. In Feudalism fragmented political and economic power in which private ownership prevails Work ethic a cultural norm placing a positive moral value on hard work and selfdeprivation Renaissance the transitional era between medieval and modern times in Western Europe that is marked by a humanistic revival of the arts the midst of this hardship, the Catholic Church became the main civilizing force, and according to church doctrine, the main goal of life was abstinence from worldly pleasures. The Church maintained that the way to a higher quality of afterlife was through hard work, good deeds, and self-deprivation. This is why this period of human history is often considered to be the birth of the work ethic. Yet, contradictorily, church clergy were wealthy noblemen and enjoyed the same pastimes as other noblemen. The Renaissance: Humanism By about AD, medieval Europe began to give way to modern Europe, a period in history called the Renaissance. Renaissance is a French word meaning rebirth, and in this year period, it meant changes in ways of experiencing leisure. This was the age of Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, William Shakespeare, and Cervantes. Art, music, drama, and other literary forms flourished. This was also the age of adventure; people were fascinated with the world and other 14

29 The Meanings of Leisure people. Books about travel began to flood England, for example, and it became a widespread practice for young gentlemen to complement their education with lengthy travel (Hudman, ). Under the sponsorship of wealthy nobles and royalty, theaters and opera houses were constructed and formal balls, exhibitions, banquets, and masquerades were arranged. The middle classes also participated in festivities, and children s activities stressed creative pastimes such as studies in music and science (Bucher, Shiver, & Bucher, ). This Renaissance emphasis on the rediscovery and study of literature and the arts formed a new 20th century philosophy known as humanism. Although today within both religious doctrine and individual beliefs there are many interpretations, humanism includes the idea of happiness as its own justification. Like leisure, life is to include freedom of expression and awareness of beauty and to harmoniously combine personal satisfaction with self-improvement. Humanism a philosophy emphasizing the capacities and worth of human beings Colonial America: Purposeful Pastimes As early as the s, native people were the only inhabitants of the western hemisphere, but following Columbus voyage of , for the next years, large waves of nonnative people mostly from Europe sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to North and South America. Among them were British colonists, who settled on the east coast of North America between what are now the states of Maine and Georgia. They came in search of opportunities for wealth, power, freedom, and adventure. Yet those who settled in the northern regions of this area did not find great riches at first; instead, they found rugged wilderness. The earliest colonists suffered from starvation and disease as they worked to harness America s abundant resources. Little time and energy could be squandered when there was so much work to be done just to survive. Often this view about idleness led to strict policies against it. As well, because many of the new settlers were motivated to cross the Atlantic by a belief in divine mission, a calling that rebelled against conspicuous pleasures of the privileged classes of the English aristocracy, leisure s role was doubly questioned. For example, the Puritans of the American colonies represented a broad movement of radical Protestants who sought to purge society of godlessness. Indeed, the Puritan calendar of the late s abolished all Catholic holy days, including Christmas, and replaced them with holidays based on fasting, humiliation, and thanksgiving (Borsay, ). Over the years, history has incorporated evidence such as this as the basis for concluding that the early American colonists did not enjoy themselves, and by extension, this is what renders many contemporary American pleasures chained to guilt, sanctimony, and hypocrisy (Daniels, ). Recently, however, a few historians have begun publishing new and opposing interpretations of Puritanism. According to them, the Puritans did enjoy themselves. Thus, in spite of the hard work to be done and religious reforms, early colonial life provides numerous examples of common pastime practices. These included reading, socializing, singing, dancing, archery, shooting, hunting, fishing, fowling, football, wrestling, ninepin, tennis, an early version of shuffleboard, and even horse racing, gambling, and card games (O Keefe, ). As well, and typical of people of the 17th century, they liked to drink and eat well. 15

30 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure What is distinctive about these colonial pastimes is that it was expected that they serve a purpose. Their leisure ethic is best understood as utilitarian. Celebrations while making a quilt or building a barn, for example, made it possible for many hands to help with the task. The northern colonists took great pains to distinguish lawful recreation as that contributing to the greater good. The Industrial Revolution: Leisure as Problem Solver Beginning in Great Britain during the s, and spreading to other parts of Europe and to North America in the early s, the development of industrialization brought major changes in leisure s meaning. So significant were the challenges that historians refer to this period as the Industrial Revolution. Widespread by midcentury, industrialization created an enormous increase in the production of many kinds of goods because of the introduction of power-driven machinery. Obviously this had significant impact on society s work. Perhaps not so obvious at first were the radical changes in just about every other area of life. For example, industrialization not only changed the nature of work by taking it out of the rural home and workshop and into the urban factory, but also changed people s thinking about work time. The clock was now important as it ordered the pace of work. Also, women and men were now separated for most of the day, and the importance of community was diminished as no one was there much anymore. Some people were able to amass huge fortunes through industrialization. By there were about 3, millionaires in the United States, compared to only 20 in American author Mark Twain called this the Gilded Age, describing the leisure-based culture of the newly rich. Attending operas and horse races, holding balls and parties, yachting, and relaxing at luxurious resorts represented the pursuit of lavish pleasure. For the middle and lower classes there were major changes in how leisure was experienced as well. Indeed, the main story of leisure s utilitarian role was extended by how the lower classes of people experienced daily life at this time. Most of those who tended the machines lived and worked under harsh conditions. In the factories the machines forced them to work faster and without rest. Jobs became specialized, so the work was monotonous. Wages were as low as 20 cents an hour, and workers put in at Industrial Revolution the complex and radical socioeconomic changes from extensive mechanization of production least hour workweeks (Fourastie, ). Figure Children, many under age 10, worked up to Reading the newspaper for workers in a 14 hours a day, at only a small fraction of Tampa, Florida, cigar factory (). The these wages. practice is still in place today. Meanwhile, housing in the growing industrial cities of New York, Chicago, and The University of South Florida Libraries others could not keep up with the migration of workers from rural areas and other countries. Severe overcrowding resulted, along with poor sanitation and inadequate diets, making people vulnerable to disease. As an 16

31 The Meanings of Leisure obvious consequence, some came to believe that social reforms were needed to correct these conditions. Churches and social welfare groups set up charities, Horace Mann demanded better schools, and workers strikes for better wages and shorter work schedules erupted. Most meaningful from our perspective were those reforms that used leisure. These reformers believed wholesome and enriching leisure expressions would solve the problems of industrialization. We will use as examples two turn-of-the-century social movements: settlement houses and playgrounds. Copying the British model of Toynbee Hall in London, Stanton Coit, Jane Addams, and Ellen Starr established settlement houses in the United States as a way to help the urban poor. Coit established the first settlement house in in New York City, and 3 years later Addams and Starr established a settlement house in Chicago that became famous as the Hull House. Social movements a significant change in the social conditions and patterns of behavior in a society Settlement houses an institution in an inner city providing various community services u Box In Profile Jane Addams, Ellen Gates Starr, and Hull House In Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr, college-educated, upper middleclass women, using their own money, founded the Hull House in Chicago and quickly made it a model for nationwide efforts to improve the lives of people coping with urban poverty. When the heir of Charles Hull granted Jane and Ellen a rent-free, 4-year lease on his large, dilapidated old home that had become surrounded by the sprawling, densely packed, deteriorating immigrant slums of Chicago s 19th ward, they took it. A few days after Jane s 29th birthday, the two former college roommates moved in. They intended to share their gifts of culture with their neighbors. Indeed, Hull House made a special reputation for itself based on the exaltation of art for the benefit of the masses (Smith, , p. 10). From the beginning, Hull House was the center of activity. A day care center and kindergarten were available in the morning. In the afternoon, classes and clubs for teens were provided, and adult education programs were held in the evening. Nearby buildings were acquired and converted into a coffeehouse, a gymnasium, and a playground. Classes were offered in pottery, rhythm and dance, photography, and chorus. Concerts, dramatic readings, art exhibits, and lectures were weekly events, and the audience was always packed. These carefully supervised programs were central to helping people, especially children, resist the negative effects of the city around them (McBride, ). 17

32 Pastimes: The Context of Contemporary Leisure The settlement house objective was to improve living conditions in cities, particularly for new immigrants. To accomplish this, they offered educational classes, nurseries, and civil rights and fair employment advocacy. Also, the recreational services typically play apparatus for young children, sport activities and social clubs for older children, and cultural arts programs for adults not only provided a more positive balance in desperate lives but also taught skills needed for productive lives. Meanwhile, another use of organized play to solve social problems can be traced to Friedrich Froebel, who founded the first kindergarten in Germany in He Figure Janie Porter Barrett wanted to teach life skills to neighborhood African American girls. What began in as a sewing class for a few girls in her home on Tuesday afternoons soon became known as the Locust Street Social Settlement. Courtesy of Hampton University Archives believed children should be schooled early in a gentle manner that allowed them to develop freely, thus leading the way for another social movement. In the United States, this was represented by the insight of public-spirited members of the New England Woman s Club. Their project was the establishment in of The Boston Sand Garden, which is considered by many historians to be the first actual playground in the United States. Borrowing the idea from the public parks of Berlin, Germany, the New England Woman s Club gave the city s children huge piles of sand in which to play. Later, strides to promote playgrounds in Boston were made by Joseph Lee, who helped create a model playground that included an area for small children, a boys section, a sports field, and individual sand gardens. Other playgrounds sprang up elsewhere. Jacob Riis initiated the movement for publicly sponsored playgrounds in New York City, and Philadelphia moved ahead with full playground programs in the summer. Unfortunately, most of these playgrounds were segregated, and those for African American children were less numerous, smaller, poorer in equipment and less adequately supervised than playgrounds for white children in the same city (McGuinn, as cited in Johnson, , p. 91). There were other initiatives using leisure as a problem solver at this time as well. Agencies serving youth organized to help the cause. For example, Sir Robert Baden- Powell of Great Britain started the Boy Scout movement in , and 6, girls registered too. As he could not have girls traipsing about over the country after his Boy Scouts, he got his sister Agnes Baden-Powell to form the Girl Guides program in Britain in (Schultz & Lawrence, ). Their first law was that they must not even speak to a Boy Scout if they saw him in uniform! A few years later, while visiting Britain, Juliette Gordon Low met the Baden-Powells and became fascinated with their organizations. 18